In vitro systems are being used to study the mechanism of action of gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin, bombesin, substance P and vasoactive intestinal peptide with their specific membrane receptors. Clinical investigations are directed toward developing alternative forms of therapy for and elucidating the pathogenesis of disorders characterized by ectopic production of gastrointestinal hormones (e.g., Zollinger-Ellison syndrome and pancreatic cholera).